Investigating this type of memory, the author proceeded from the following hypothesis. It was assumed that in junior and middle school school age(3 and 4 years) memorization and reproduction are not independent processes, but only part of a particular activity, i.e. involuntary.
At the older preschool age (5 and 6 years old), a transition is made from not random memory to the initial stages of voluntary memorization and recall. At the same time, there is a differentiation of a special kind of actions that correspond to the goals of remembering and recalling that are set for children. The child’s active identification and awareness of mnemonic goals occurs in the presence of appropriate motives.
The study was aimed at solving the following problems: 1) to identify the conditions under which children begin to highlight the goal - to remember and recall; 2) study the early, primary forms of voluntary memory.
In the first group of experiments, children were read a series of words and asked to remember them in order to later name them to the experimenter (laboratory experiment).
In the second group of experiments, memorizing the same number of words was included in the preschooler’s play activity, which created a motive encouraging the child to remember and remember. Two simple game plots were used: the “shop” game and the “kindergarten” game. These games were linked together into a single common plot. Each of the children, participating in the game, must receive the necessary items from the teacher and, therefore, remember their names. It is quite obvious that the motives for memorization in those and other experimental conditions were different.
Comparison of average data obtained V experiments show that in play activity in all age groups, especially in four-year-old children, memory productivity is noticeably higher than in laboratory experiments. However
In three-year-old children, performance indicators in memorization and play remain very low. They diverge from the indicators of laboratory experiments only at older ages.
The explanation for the difference in memorization productivity in experiments and in play should be sought not in external conditions, but in the content of the child’s activity itself. This difference is revealed during a qualitative analysis of the data obtained. When a three-year-old child accepts the task of going to the “store” with an errand, it does not follow that he also faces a more differentiated goal of remembering the order in order to then carry it out correctly. The child, having heard the order, does not carry it out. For him, memorization does not become a purposeful process, a mnemonic action. Four-year-old preschoolers listen carefully to the experimenter and try to carry out the instructions. Their behavior in the “store” is also subordinated to this goal. Does this mean that children identify a special goal - to remember, and that they differentiate the special actions of memorization and recall? Only in some children of this age was it possible to observe actions associated with the intention to remember, to recall something.
The identification of these actions occurs only in older preschool age in children five and six years old. Indeed, all older preschoolers not only listened to the instruction, but also actively tried to remember it. The easiest way they remember is to repeat the instructions after the adults. This method is easily understood by children, and they often point to it when answering the question of how they managed to remember the assignment.
Repetition, with the help of which memorization is carried out, takes on a double form. The child repeats the instructions out loud or silently (to himself) after the experimenter. This is the earliest appointment. Repetition here simply accompanies the process of “accepting” the assignment. Subsequently, repetition acquires a new form and function. The child repeats the instruction not in the process of listening to it, but after it has been heard. Objectively, the function of such repetition is reproducing repetition.
The transition to mental repetition is essential. By turning the memorization operation into an internal process, such a transition makes possible its further development, its further intellectualization.
The memorization process is formed towards the end preschool age, i.e. at the age of 6–7 years. It is characterized by attempts to form mental logical connections between memorized words. The existence of such connections is, first of all, indicated by the very nature of reproduction. During reproduction, the child changes the order of the objects named to him and combines them according to their purpose. These levels of behavior also form the main genetic stages, which are closely related to the age of children.
As a result of the analysis of children's behavior when reproducing instructions in a game, three levels can be distinguished, similar to the levels of behavior when memorizing. The first level - the goal of recalling words is not isolated; second level - the purpose of recall is isolated, but there are no methods of recall; third level - special recall techniques are used.
The distribution of the levels of behavior of the subjects when they reproduced instructions in the game (by age group) gives a picture that almost repeats the same distribution of levels of behavior when memorizing. However, their ratio shows that children achieve more earlier high levels playback
This gives us the right to assert that voluntary reproduction occurs earlier, as if overtaking voluntary memorization. The development of voluntary memory begins with the development of voluntary reproduction, followed by voluntary memorization.
Based on the same features that form the basis for the classification of children’s behavior when memorizing and reproducing in games, in laboratory experiments three levels were also identified, differing from each other in the presence or absence of a goal to memorize and recall words. Under these conditions, the same relationship between memorization and reproduction is maintained as in the game: a relatively larger number of children reproduce the third level of behavior.
A comparative analysis of memorization productivity and levels of behavior in laboratory experiments and in play suggests that changes in the nature of memory processes in children, the transformation of these processes into purposeful actions depend on the motivation of this activity as a whole.
The child becomes aware of (and identifies) mnemonic goals only when he is faced with conditions that require him to actively recall and memorize.
However, the mere presence of such a requirement is not yet capable of leading to awareness of the corresponding goal. The identification and awareness of this goal by the child depends not only on objective conditions, but also on the motive that motivates the child to activity.
The motive conveys the meaning of the goal and the actions that then follow. In this regard, the formation of mnemonic actions (memorization and recollection) in conditions of variously motivated activities is of particular interest. For younger preschoolers, the adult's demand to remember and then recall a number of words, as happened in laboratory experiments, does not yet lead to their identifying the corresponding goals.
Another thing is in the conditions of the game. The child takes on the role of being sent to the “store” for shopping; he accepts the task of buying for kindergarten what he is entrusted with. The general motive that encourages him to play is concretized in a particular gaming motive: to demand what is assigned to him in the “store”. Therefore, it becomes internally necessary for the child to remember what exactly needs to be bought. The relationship of both moments here is meaningful for him: in this meaningful relationship, he identifies and realizes the goal of remembering, and from here - first retrospectively - also the goal of remembering. In other words, when a child participates in a general game, the goals of remembering and remembering have a completely specific and relevant meaning for the child. Consequently, under game conditions, mnemonic goals are identified much easier for them.
However, if this specific goal also acquires meaning for the child in practical activities, then its inclusion in the game does not provide an advantage. This was confirmed when comparing the productivity of memorization in a game and a practical situation - in experiments on decorating an exhibition of children's drawings.
Our research has shown that the restructuring of mnemonic processes means that the child is able to set conscious goals for himself to both remember and remember. At the same time, the transition to voluntary memory is not a one-time act, but is a complex process that includes two main stages. At the first stage, the child identifies and understands mnemonic goals; at the second stage, actions and operations corresponding to them are formed.
Initially, the methods of memorization, as well as the methods of recall, are very primitive and not yet specialized enough. The child draws them from the actions that he already owns. These are methods such as, for example, repeating an order after an adult or returning a child in the process of remembering to the links he has already reproduced.
The child’s search for ways and techniques of memorization and recollection opens up a new, very important opportunity for the education of his voluntary memory: teaching him how to memorize and recall. Now for the first time the child truly accepts instructions on how to do it and follows those instructions.
None psychological problem did not cause such a large number of experimental and theoretical studies as the problem of memory. It would seem that in the works devoted to her, the question of the initial emergence of voluntary memorization and recollection in children should have found its complete resolution. However, this issue is still not sufficiently covered in the scientific literature.
The old idea of the memory of children of early and preschool age was that it was involuntary and, as they say, “mechanical” in nature.
This idea of the memory of young children was put forward by the first foreign childhood researchers.
The latest experimental child psychology has not enriched this problem with significantly new materials. Despite the great detail and thoroughness of the research, experimenters dealt very little with the issue of general type early childhood memory.
Research into children's memory younger age, mainly focused on the so-called effective side of it: they studied early memories, “delayed reactions”, the role of the emotional coloring of experiences, the increase in the overall efficiency of children’s memory, etc.
We find provisions much more important for the problem of the development of voluntary memory in Russian psychology. Among them especially great importance for this problem there is a question developed by domestic psychologists about internal structure active, voluntary memorization.
Already in one of the first domestic experimental studies of children's memory, conducted by A. N. Leontyev, voluntary memorization was revealed as a purposeful mediated process, including the use of certain techniques and means of memorization. The problem of the structure of voluntary and involuntary memorization processes was posed even more directly in the studies of A.A. Smirnov and P.I. Zinchenko.
As a result of these studies, not only were important psychological laws established for both of these types of memorization, but the very concepts of voluntary and involuntary memory were revealed in a new way.
First of all, the concept of involuntary memory was decisively freed from the associated ideas about its “mechanical” or “natural” character. It was shown that involuntary memorization is a process that is complexly determined by the content and structure of the always meaningful activity in which it is included and on the development of which it depends. Its difference from voluntary memorization lies not in its very nature, but in the task to which it responds: if memorization becomes subordinate to the special task of remembering, and does not occur in a process subordinate to some other task, then it thereby becomes voluntary memorization . At the same time, it turns into a kind of internal action, i.e. into a process aimed at a specific goal, motivated in a specific way, and carried out using specific methods of operation.
Thus, these studies put the problem of the genesis of voluntary memory on completely new ground and opened up new opportunities for specific research.
But the studies we named dealt only with the memory of schoolchildren and adults and did not provide any characteristics of the memory of preschool children. This question remains, as before, open. Meanwhile, a number of fundamentally important problems arise here that require resolution. When conscious voluntary learning is formed - by the beginning of school age, i.e. still in preschool age, or in the first school age? How does the transformation of involuntary memory into voluntary memory occur?
The general task that we set for this study was to approach the experimental resolution of both of these questions. In doing so, we proceeded from the following hypothesis of the genesis of voluntary memory.
We believed that initially, at the earliest, pre-preschool age, memory processes (memorization, recollection) are not independent processes. They are only part of one or another activity, i.e. are involuntary. Later, namely in middle preschool age, these processes turn into
special internal actions, i.e. become consciously purposeful and arbitrary.
These are the general starting points that served as the hypothesis for this study. Thus, our research had to include the following three specific tasks:
1. Establish the moment and conditions for the child’s first selection of the goal to remember and recall.
2. Find those forms in which the actions of memorization and recollection first appear and find out what the initial methods of their implementation are.
3. Find conditions and ways for further development of voluntary memory.
For this purpose, in addition to a series of experiments that were conducted according to the usual methods of laboratory experiments with memorization and reproduction of meaningful words, we organized a special game similar to a regular game with roles. This game included a certain meaningful situation, which created unique motives for memorization and recollection, different from those that determined the child’s activity in the laboratory experiment. For the main series of experiments, we took two similar simple game plots: the “shop” game and the “kindergarten” game, which we linked together into a single, general plot.
In addition to the children, the experimenter and his assistant also participated in the game. One of them took on the role of “manager” of the store, and the other took on the role of “manager” of the kindergarten.
The “manager” of the kindergarten invited one of the children participating in the game to his place and gave him instructions to go to the store to do some shopping for the kindergarten. The instructions were always given in the same form: “Here is a pass to the store, go and buy...”. After this, the child was given a pass, “money” and a shopping basket.
In the “store” the “manager” asked the subject: “What are you instructed to buy?” If the child forgot something from the assignment, an additional question was asked: “What else is needed”? Then the subject paid the money to the “cash register”, received “goods” from the seller and returned with the purchases to the “kindergarten”.
As for the verbal material that we offered our subjects for memorization, we naturally had to use the simplest material: meaningful words well known to children (candy, cereal, ball, toys, carrots, milk, socks, sausage, paint, cabbage , book, bun, slippers, butter, etc.).
In parallel with the experiments conducted in the form of a game, we, as already indicated, conducted experiments using the usual psychological method of “retained members”: experiments with memorizing and reproducing meaningful words - the names of objects.
These experiments were carried out like this. The child was invited by the experimenter for “classes,” and the experimenter set him the task of listening carefully to the words, trying to remember them in order to later tell what words were read.
The words in their meaning and difficulty were similar to those given for memorization in experiments with a gaming assignment.
After a short pause, the subject had to remember, if possible, all the words. If the subject did not name the entire series, the experimenter asked him: “What else did you need to remember, what other words?”
Thus, in only one respect did these laboratory experiments differ from the experiments with the game assignment. Memorization in these experiments was motivated in a completely different way, and the goal to remember, to remember, was highlighted for the child by the experimenter, while in “experiments with a play assignment the child had to highlight” this goal himself.
In all other respects, the laboratory experiments and the game were equal (the same number and quality of words, the same structure of the series, rate of pronunciation, etc.).
The study included only about 200 subjects - children of 2 Moscow kindergartens, with whom about 1,300 individual experiments were carried out.
The experiments included two main series.
Series I had the task of studying the effectiveness of children's memory under conditions of different motivation for memorization and recollection processes: in laboratory experiments and in games, during the performance of a game role.
Series II had a dual task. Firstly, to trace the dynamics of voluntary memorization and recall in preschool children, i.e. trace changes in these processes under the influence of repetition. The other side of the problem is to compare changes in memory processes under game conditions and under laboratory conditions.
The experiment itself proceeded in the same way as in Series I, with the difference, however, that the number of words in the rows presented to the subjects for memorization in Series II was increased to 8.
The entire experiment continued with each group of children for 7-10 days. The number of exercises for all subjects was the same (5 times). The words, of course, were different each time.
Let us turn, first of all, to the consideration of quantitative data characterizing the effectiveness of memorization among subjects of different ages in a laboratory experiment.
Memorization rates increase markedly with age. In children aged 3 to 4 years, the average number of words remembered under these conditions is 0.6. This means that some children do not remember a single word, others only one word. The indicators increase when we move on to children 4-5 years old, here we have an average of 1.5 words; by 5-6 years old - 2 words out of 5, and by 6-7 years old - 2.3 words.
Even the most superficial glance at the memorization data in the game (Fig. 1) clearly reveals a much faster increase in memorization indicators depending on the age of the subjects than in the laboratory experiment.
If 3-year-old children memorized only one word correctly on average and made a large number of errors (6 cases), then when we move to 4-year-olds we have a sharp increase in memorization efficiency: they remember on average 3 out of 5 words and do not make any mistakes. We observe an even higher degree of memorization in older preschoolers.
If we compare the quantitative memorization data obtained in a laboratory experiment and in a game, we will have to state that the memorization results in the second case are much higher, especially in 4-year-old children, for whom they double. These comparative data are presented in graphical form in Fig. 1.
The question arises: is this sharp shift in the memorization rates in the game compared to the memorization rates obtained in laboratory experiments?
The explanation for the difference in the effectiveness of memorization in one and another situation should be sought not in their external, but in their internal conditions - in the content of the child’s activity itself. This is clearly revealed by qualitative analysis of the data obtained.
As a result of this qualitative analysis, to which we subjected children's behavior when remembering in a game, it is possible to clearly identify the main types of “behavior when remembering.”
They form the following series:
First type. - The child accepts the role of a “buyer”, but does not accept the task of fulfilling the maintenance order.
Does not listen to instructions to the end; When transmitting an order, he makes no attempt to reproduce its contents.
The goal is to remember the content of the order is not isolated.
Second type. - Accepts the task of fulfilling the content assignment.
Listens carefully to the content of the order. He strives to convey it as quickly as possible.
The goal is identified - to remember.
Third type. - Accepts the task of fulfilling the content assignment.
Repeats the instructions during or after listening, out loud or silently, asks to repeat or remind the instructions.
One or another method of memorization is used.
These different types of behavior, at the same time, form the main genetic stages, very clearly related to the age of the subjects.
We show their distribution by age in Table 1.
Table 1. Distribution of types of behavior when remembering instructions by age (60 subjects)
| Types of behavior | Age | |||
| 3 – 4 | 4 – 5 | 5 – 6 | 6 – 7 | |
| First | - | - | - | |
| Second | ||||
| Third | - | - |
What does an analysis of the main types of behavior of subjects give when reproducing a gaming assignment?
In these cases we get the following diagram
First type
The task of conveying the content of the order is not at all faced by the subject.
The goal of recalling the contents of the order does not arise.
Instead of reproducing instructions, he names objects that he sees or that others suggest to him.
Trying to convey the order. The goal is to remember the contents of the order. Limits itself to immediate reproduction and does not make active attempts to remember what has been forgotten.
Third type
Trying to convey the order.
One or another method of recall is used.
There are active attempts to remember the forgotten.
The distribution of the described types of behavior by age groups gives a picture that almost repeats the distribution of types of behavior during memorization (Table 2).
Table 2. Distribution of types of behavior when reproducing instructions by age (60 subjects)
| Types of behavior | Age | |||
| 3 – 4 | 4 – 5 | 5 – 6 | 6 – 7 | |
| First | - | - | - | |
| Second | ||||
| Third | - |
This, of course, is not at all unexpected; on the contrary, the obvious connection that exists between memory processes may lead to the idea that there is a complete correspondence between them. This, in any case, is the assumption that underlies the usual term “voluntary memory”, which simultaneously refers to the process of memorization and to the process of remembering.
A closer examination of both tables shows, however, that there is some correspondence between the general picture of the distribution by age and the seam of behavior during memorization and reproduction, but by no means their direct coincidence.
Comparing the data presented in Tables 1 and 2, we see that children achieve higher types of recall earlier. Thus, children from 4 to 3 years old do not show a single case of remembering the third type, but they already show isolated cases of remembering this type. In other words, among our subjects of this age we find those in whom the reproduction of instructions proceeds as a purposeful, detailed process, while memorization does not yet have this form for them. Children aged 5-6 years are divided according to the nature of memorization, approximately in half between the second and third types, while in recall the majority of them (12 out of 15) display the third type of behavior. The same is observed in children 6-7 years old.
Thus, as a result of our experiments, it was established that the formation of voluntary reproduction in the conditions in which the experiments were carried out overtakes the formation of voluntary memorization.
The quantitative distribution of subjects according to the described types of memorization in laboratory experiments, depending on age, is given in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Distribution of types of behavior in children when remembering in laboratory experiments by age
Comparing these tables with each other, we must first of all note that in laboratory experiments the same relationship between memorization and reproduction is maintained as in play: a relatively larger number of higher types of behavior are produced by the child when reproducing material.
This suggests that, according to laboratory experiments, it is clear that the processes of reproduction are reorganized first, and then, or simultaneously with it, memorization. The main thing is the general decrease in the type of behavior of younger children in the conditions of a laboratory experiment in comparison with what they give when memorizing a game instruction. So, according to reproduction, we have the following figures. In the game, three-year-olds had three cases belonging to the second type, in laboratory experiments - not a single case, but three cases of complete loss from the experiment.
In four-year-old children, in the game there were 13 cases of behavior of the second type and two cases of behavior of the third type; in laboratory conditions there was not a single case of behavior of the third type, but four subjects remained at the level of the first type. Children of 5 years old in the game give 12 cases of behavior of the third type, in laboratory experiments - only 8. The difference is smaller for six-year-old subjects, for whom the corresponding numbers will be 14 and 12.
The same relationships are preserved in the behavior of the subjects during memorization, with the only difference being that in the oldest subjects the difference is not only completely smoothed out, but they even give in laboratory experiments a slightly larger number of cases of behavior of a higher type than in game conditions.
Thus, a completely clear picture emerges. In early preschool age, between three-year-old and four-year-old children, we have a significant difference in the general level of memory processes that they reveal in play and in laboratory-type experiments. It turns out that highlighting in the mind the goal of remembering, recalling and transforming memory processes into purposeful processes, i.e. in a special kind of action that occurs at younger preschooler easier in play than in laboratory experiments.
As for the relationship in the formation of voluntary reproduction and voluntary memorization, it finds its explanation in the analysis of research materials. Our analysis allows us to think that the change in the nature of memory processes in children, which consists in the fact that these processes turn into purposeful action, depends on the motivation of the activity as a whole. Initially, awareness of the goal to remember, to recall, occurs rather when the meaning of this goal for the child directly follows from the internal motive that motivates his activity, as we have in the conditions of a play role, and does not lie in a more difficult relationships this goal to the motive, as is observed in the case of memorization under laboratory experimental conditions.
We approach the discussion of this situation in connection with the consideration of the materials of the second series of our research. Experiments in series II consisted of repetition of laboratory experiments and games. The entire experiment continued with each group of subjects for 7-10 days. The number of exercises for all subjects was the same (5 times). The words, of course, were different each time.
Our research shows that a shift in memory indicators as a result of repetition of laboratory experiments occurs, but it is insignificant.
A much more pronounced shift in memorization is observed under the influence of repetition of the game.
So, for example, if in experiments with children 4-5 years old the increase in efficiency reaches 33%, then in the game it reaches 62%.
On the contrary, in the oldest subjects there is no noticeable difference between the shift under the influence of experiments and games (107% in the first case and 112% in the second).
So, considering the values obtained in the experiments of series II, we must first of all state that they are completely consistent with the data of series I of the study.
Qualitative analysis materials in this series shows how memorization, initially involuntary, as the special goal of remembering, remembering is highlighted in the child’s mind and special techniques and means are developed, it turns into a special internal action, occupying a new place in the structure of the child’s activity.
Already 4-year-old children, under the influence of repetition of experiments, show a significant increase in the number of memorized words and move on to higher types of behavior when memorizing and reproducing material.
When accepting instructions, they already set themselves the task of remembering this instruction, and when passing it on, they try to remember what they have forgotten.
In our 4-5 year old subjects, this transition to a higher type of behavior can be observed during one experiment.
The child begins by going to the “shop,” meaning “to buy.” When a child finds himself in a situation where the transfer of an order is required, i.e. in a situation of recollection, he identifies the goal of remembering the content of the order. This means that remembering already appears as a special action as voluntary remembering.
At the same time, failure to perform this action is recognized by the child as a failure to fulfill the role assumed. Gradually, the action of memorization is realized as an indispensable condition for fulfilling the game assignment. If at first the youngest subjects, having named 2-3 objects that came to their minds, then calmly declare: “and nothing more,” then in subsequent experiments they directly say: “I forgot what else to buy,” “I also forgot what.” , “I need something else, but I forgot.”
The most important thing is that the child, thanks to this, correlates reproduction with memorization: “You tell me a lot,” the subject next turns to “the head of the kindergarten.” - “I’ll forget again.” Now another goal stands out in the child’s mind - to remember the assignment.
Thus, by following the change in a child’s behavior when repeating experiments with a play assignment, it is easy to see the very process of identifying in his mind the goals of remembering, recalling, and the formation of actions that respond to them.
The higher stage of development of memorization, which we were able to trace in our subjects, is associated with further improvement of memorization techniques. The place and role of the child’s repetition of memorized words appears especially clearly here. Initially, it only accompanies the process of memorization, and then organizes this process.
Analysis of experimental materials shows that if at first the majority of children use the most in a simple way memorization (repetition out loud), then, as experiments are repeated, the method by which memorization is carried out takes on a double form. The child’s repetition “out loud” of memorized words continues to exist, but along with it we observe that repetition “to oneself” also takes place here. As we see, repetition takes on a distinctly internal character.
It should be noted that there are also other techniques that appear in children at the age of 6 and that prepare the transition to higher forms of memorization: this is an attempt to form internal connections between words. The presence of such connections is not difficult to establish by the very nature of the child’s behavior. We have registered such cases when subjects give the following explanations: “I thought and remembered” (Galya B., 6 years old. 7 years old). Or even more clearly in the subject Ledic K., 6 years old. 6 m.: “You were talking, and I remembered that my mother also bought butter, sugar and cookies yesterday.”
So, the main content of the functional change that occurs during the repetition of experiments with the transfer of a gaming order in our subjects lies in the development of the memorization operation. It is due to this that their memorization rates increase.
Laboratory experiments gave us significantly different results. A shift in memorization as a result of repeating these experiences also occurs, but is less significant. So, the subjects junior group we have an average increase in memorization of less than 1 word (0.6). The efficiency of memorization is also insignificant among the subjects of the older groups.
Consideration of the data obtained in experiments with children 4-5 years old makes it absolutely obvious that in the conditions of a laboratory experiment, it is difficult for younger preschoolers to identify the goal to remember (remember), despite the fact that it is set for the subject by the experimenter himself. Sometimes the children themselves say this directly. For example, Tolya K., 4 years 3 months old, makes the following remark: “Why are you all saying: remember, remember?” “I don’t know how to remember here, I only know how to remember at home,” says another of our test subjects, Vasya, 4 years old. 7 m.
The general conclusion that we must draw here is that in laboratory experiments, children 4-5 years old are, as it were, a step lower than in experiments with play assignments. This is also evident from a simple comparison of quantitative data.
An increase in the efficiency of memorization in our younger subjects occurs only after the 4th experiment. At the next age level (5 years), we observe shifts in the efficiency of memorization on the 2nd and 3rd experiments.
Things change decisively only among our oldest subjects. I can give a typical example: for example, the data obtained from the test subject Vova, 6 years old. 6 m. Already in the first experiment, having correctly named 3 words, he apparently makes an effort to remember the rest. “I forgot,” he states. Next time, Vova asks with concern!*: “What if I don’t remember them (the words)?” In his last experience, he even tries to actively intervene in the experimenter’s actions: “You just speak more slowly, otherwise I won’t remember.”
So, although the quantitative indicators in laboratory experiments in children 6-7 years old still remain lower than in experiments with a game assignment, the difference at this age level between the efficiency of memorization in both of these situations is smoothed out. Both there and here we are dealing with voluntary actions of memorization, recollection, which include the corresponding operations.
The above data, characterizing the functional development of voluntary memorization and recollection in preschool children, raises one significant question, the solution of which will largely determine our conclusions. This is the question of how we should understand the shifts that occur under the influence of our experiences.
One can imagine the matter in such a way that the restructuring of memory processes that we observe is nothing more than the result of a simple adaptation of the child’s already established memorization and recollection actions to given conditions. From this point of view, the data we obtained should be considered only as the result of the transfer of established methods of action to new conditions. But a completely different understanding is also possible - the one from which we proceed. It can be assumed that both in the conditions of experiments with a game assignment and in the conditions of laboratory experiments, in our subjects, at least in subjects of primary and partly middle preschool age, there is not a transfer of already established actions of voluntary memorization and recollection, but their real formation, although, of course, prepared by the course of everything that preceded mental development child.
To resolve this issue, it is necessary to investigate whether the increase in memorization efficiency obtained in the experiments is reflected in memorization efficiency in other conditions. The easiest way to do this is to study the influence of experience gained in a laboratory experiment on memorization in a game and vice versa.
In the context of our study, this path is the most appropriate, since it takes exactly the conditions compared in it.
Considering the need to clarify this issue, from the very beginning we introduced the following addition to the methodology of our second series, which we have not yet mentioned. Before starting the “training” experiments, we conducted one experiment with the subject using the compared method, i.e. with the subjects who then participated in the game - an experiment using the laboratory experiment method, and with the subjects with whom we then carried out laboratory experiments - an experiment with memorizing the game instructions. After finishing the experiments, we repeated these experiments again.
The experiments carried out show that for subjects of all ages, the influence of experiments with memorizing game instructions has an extremely dramatic effect on memorization indicators in laboratory experiments. The latter increases twofold or more.
We obtained different results from subjects who underwent laboratory experiments. In this case, the indicators of control experiments with the game, carried out before and after the experiments, also increase, but in a different way. As can be seen from Table 5, in 4-5 year old subjects these experiments affected the efficiency of memorization in the form of a relatively small increase - only one word.Then in older subjects we observe a very sharp increase - two times, the same as the increase that is given by experiments with memorizing a game instruction in relation to control experiment-occupations.
Even more interesting relationships emerge if we compare the increase in indicators of control experiments with the increase in efficiency indicators during the main experiments. We present this comparison in Table 5.
Table 5 Comparative increase in indicators in the main and control experiments
| Age of subjects | Increasing performance after game experiments | Increased performance after laboratory experiments | ||||||
| in game experiments (mainly) | in laboratory experiments (control) | in laboratory experiments. (basic) | in game experiments (cont.) | |||||
| abs. | V% | abs. | V% | abs. | V% | abs. | V% | |
| 4-5 | 1.6 | 1,5 | 0,6 | 1,0 | ||||
| 5-6 | 2,6 | 2,6 | 1,6 | 1,8 | ||||
| 6-7 | 3.8 | 3,8 | 3,0 | 3,4 |
It turns out that repeating the memorization of an order in a game increases memorization rates in laboratory experiments more than memorization rates in the game itself. Repeating laboratory experiments gives approximately the same increase in indicators in both cases.
We received confirmation of these data in experiments conducted using the same technique on other groups of subjects.
Let us dwell on the conclusions that can be drawn from the consideration of the materials.
Firstly, the established fact that repetition of experiments using one method leads to different increases in the efficiency of memorization of subjects in experiments carried out using a different method undoubtedly indicates, as we have already said, the correctness of the initial assumption. Obviously, if the matter consisted only in adapting the already established processes of the child’s voluntary memory to certain experimental conditions, then such “co-exercise” would be impossible. And completely inexplicable from this point of view are cases when the increase in indicators in control experiments is noticeably higher than in the main experiments (for example, in subjects aged 5-6 years). For example, as a result of repeating experiments with memorizing a game instruction, the indicators in these experiments increase by 86%, and in control laboratory experiments - by 108/I.
Consequently, in the course of our experiment, at least in some age groups, we have a process of truly functional development of voluntary memorization and recall.
Secondly, the data obtained undoubtedly confirm and especially emphasize the fact that mnemonic actions - the actions of memorization and recollection - in preschool children are formed earlier in the conditions of tasks that are meaningful for the child, in particular, in the conditions of play, and then, perhaps, and in conditions of more abstract tasks, such as the task posed to the child by laboratory experience.
This concludes the presentation of experimental data and moves on to conclusions.
Our study of children's memory under conditions of variously motivated activities made it possible to establish some features of the formation of voluntary memory in preschool age.
We, first of all, needed to answer the question of how the goals of memorization and recollection are first identified to the child and realized by him.
We have, indeed, seen that among our youngest subjects the simple demand of an adult to remember and then recall a series of words does not yet lead to their identifying the corresponding goals. The analysis shows very clearly what is at stake here.
In a laboratory experiment, a child comes to the experimenter to “study” with him, to enter into communication with him. His motives lie precisely in this communication, in his relationship with the experimenter. The child wants to fulfill the experimenter's requirement to remember the words. However, in the conditions of a laboratory experiment, the goal of remembering, like the act of memorizing itself, is not directly and obviously connected with the motive that prompts it to act. For a younger preschooler, goal and motive are connected in this case only externally.
Memorizing in game conditions is another matter. The child takes on the role of being sent to the store for shopping; he recalls the task of buying what is entrusted to him. The general motive that encourages a child to play is concretized in a private play grave: to complete an errand in the store. To do this, in an internally necessary way for the child, the goal follows of remembering what exactly needs to be demanded. Under these conditions, the goal of remembering and remembering has a completely concrete and meaningful meaning for the child. Therefore, as we have seen, under conditions of play, mnemonic goals are identified earlier and easier for the child.
The role of play in the formation of such psychologically complex “theoretical” actions as the actions of recollection and memorization is not accidental. Progressive pedagogy has always emphasized the important role of play in the mental development of a child in the preschool period of his life.
Another question on which we must dwell when discussing the general results of our work is the question of general meaning the change in the child’s memory that we studied.
Preschool childhood is, objectively, the period of preparation of the child for schooling. From the very first days of school, the school makes certain demands on the child. A child entering school must be internally ready to learn. First of all, he must want to learn, he must have a general motive for learning. However, the psychological requirements for a child entering school are not limited to the requirement for his motivational sphere. They also extend to individual mental processes, namely, arbitrariness and controllability of mental processes.
To learn, you need to be able to control your perception, which is expressed in the child’s demand for attention, you need to be able to voluntarily structure your speech, control your motor behavior, you also need to be able to voluntarily remember and remember. This means that it is precisely during this period of development that the child must reorganize these, first of all, involuntary processes; in particular, his memory processes must be reorganized.
Our research has shown what this restructuring consists of and how it occurs. It made it possible to establish exactly when the child is first able to set conscious goals to remember and remember.
Z. M. Istomina
Development of voluntary memorization in preschool children
It was assumed that at 3-4 years of age, memorization and reproduction are involuntary. At the age of 5-6 years, the transition to the initial stages of voluntary memorization and recollection takes place (esp. special d, corresponding to special motives).
Research objectives: identify the conditions under which children begin to emit mnemonic. goal is to study the primary forms of voluntary memory.
In the first group of experiments, children were asked to reproduce a series of words. In the second group, memorization of the same series was included in the game (i.e., a motive was created). è in all age groups, especially four-year-olds, the efficiency of memorization in the game is much higher than without it. In three-year-old children, memory levels in the game remain low (=control).
Children aged 5-6 years old tried to actively remember the instructions given in the game (by repetition: when receiving instructions -> after it -> in inner speech). The process of memorization is formed by the age of 6-7 (attempts to form mental logical connections with memorized words).
Three levels of behavior when memorizing: involuntary à the goal is realized à the goal + the mechanisms for achieving it. (similar to voluntary reproduction, only it is a little earlier in time: the development of voluntary memory begins with the development of voluntary reproduction, followed by voluntary memorization.)
D in children, the nature of memory processes, their transformation into goal-orientation depends on D.’s motivation as a whole. The child becomes aware of mnemonic. goals only when conditions require active memory, as well as in the presence of appropriate. motive.
1. The main stages in the development of psychology as a science. Development of ideas about the subject of psychology
Document... memorization and reproduction [A.A. Smirnov, L.M. Zhitnikova, Z.M. Istomina ... Development arbitrary memory in preschool age occurs in games and in the process of education. Moreover, the manifestation memorization... peculiarities preschoolers. Preschoolers so...
"Developmental and developmental psychology"
TextbookApplication of rational techniques arbitrary memorization material. Seniors... Z.M. Istomina, dedicated development memory in children - preschoolers, showed that... the first steps development arbitrarily-motor sphere of the child- preschooler with full...
Subject of the methodology for the development of children's speech The essence of the methodology and its methodological basis
DocumentDefining content and paths development speeches preschoolers, we use children's data... remember the text. Research by Z.M. Istomina and other psychologists have shown that... in order to cause arbitrary memorization object, event. Didactic...
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Child- preschooler" M., Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, 1948. 8a. Istomina Z.M. Development arbitrary... t. - M., 1986.-T. 2. Zinchenko P. I. Involuntary memorization. - M., 1961. Istomina 3M. Development arbitrary memory in preschool children // Questions...
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Development, both physical and mental, is closely related to age. Each age has its own level of physical, mental and social development. This correspondence is partly true, since the development of a particular person may deviate in one direction or another.
Ya.A. Komensky was the first to insist on strict consideration of the age characteristics of children in educational work. He put forward and substantiated the principle of conformity with nature, according to which training and education must correspond age stages development. Just as in nature everything happens in its own time, so in education everything should take its course - timely and consistently.
Senior preschool age plays a special role in the mental development of a child: during this period of life, new psychological mechanisms of activity and behavior begin to form. One of the most important achievements of senior preschool age is the awareness of one’s social “I”, the formation of an internal social position.
Problems of memory development are considered in both foreign and domestic psychology. Thus, V. Stern, in his book “Psychology of Early Childhood,” based on many years of observations of the behavior of his own three children and summarizing the data of other authors, tried to outline the main line of memory development throughout school age. Bühler, studying the problem of children's memory, argued that it is mechanical and subjective in nature.
E. Maiman in “Lectures on Experimental Pedagogy” states that “in very early childhood, the child’s memory works mechanically.” The strength of memorization, in his opinion, weakens with age, although at the same time he does not deny some improvement over the years.
Later researchers E. Brunswik, L. Goldscheider, studying age differences in the ratio of memorizing meaningless and meaningful material, came to the conclusion that logical, or meaningful, memory develops from 11 to 12 years, and before that mechanical, associative memory predominates.
Statements about the memory of N.A. Dobrolyubov are of significant interest. In his works, he wrote about the role of comprehension, understanding of what a child is learning.
K. D. Ushinsky, formulating the initial positions in the problem of memory, tried to emphasize that memorization is a process of forming associations, but in his understanding, associations are not only associations by contiguity (“by unity of place”, “by order of time”), but and rational associations, associations “based on heartfelt feelings” and very special associations of “development”. He identifies three stages of memory development: mechanical, rational and spiritual (reasonable) memory.
I.M. Sechenov made a valuable contribution to the doctrine of the development of children's memory. He approached the study of mental processes and, in particular, memory processes in a child from the position of the reflex theory of the psyche put forward by him, later developed by I. P. Pavlov. It is well known that this theory played a huge role in the construction of materialistic psychology.
P. P. Blonsky in the book “Memory and Thinking” develops the genetic theory of memory. He identifies four main types of memory: motor memory (habit memory), affective, figurative and verbal. These types of memory do not appear in a child simultaneously, but in a given sequence, one after another.
L. S. Vygotsky considered the problem of memory from the position of the cultural-historical theory of mental development that he put forward.
One of the first significant attempts by L. S. Vygotsky to concretize the general theory of the cultural and historical development of the human psyche was the concept of memory development he developed. According to this concept, the highest, specific human forms of memory, active memorization using signs, just like other forms of behavior, are initially born in social communication between people. .
As psychological studies show (A.N. Leontiev, P.I. Zinchenko), it is in preschool age that the child begins to develop his own mnemonic activity, which has its own specific goals, techniques and methods. Voluntary, intentional memory arises. During preschool age, the child learns to manage this process and learns to set a goal to remember something. He develops special mnemonic actions.
The process of identifying and realizing a mnemonic goal by a child was studied by Z.M. Istomina. It was found that the identification of a mnemonic goal by a preschool child occurs when he is faced with conditions that require him to actively memorize and recall.
In a study by Z. M. Istomina, it was also found that recall, earlier than memorization, becomes arbitrary. Experimental materials obtained by Z. M. Istomina showed that only after discovering his inability to reproduce the instructions given to him, the child realized the fact that he was not active enough when listening to the instructions and did nothing to remember it.
The materials obtained in the work of N. A. Kornienko also indicate the presence of preschool childhood generalizations of memorized material, combining it into semantic groups.
The use of semantic grouping by preschoolers in the process of memorizing in itself indicates the meaningful nature of their memory and can serve to refute the position about the mechanical nature of children's memory in preschool age. Many psychologists believed that one of the main features of children's memory is its mechanicalness. Stern, Kolenare, Treter spoke about the advantage of rote memorization in young children.
The participation of speech in establishing semantic connections within memorized material is one of the central factors in the development of memory in preschool age. The replacement of visual-figurative connections that take place in the first stages of preschool childhood with speech connections marks the transition to internally mediated memorization, which makes it possible for children to develop verbal-logical memory.
The formation and education of the memory of older preschoolers, as well as the formation of other mental processes, occurs in the process of activity. The nature of memory largely depends on the characteristics of its structure in older preschool age. The activity of a preschooler is characterized by the fact that it is aimed at immediate specific goals.
In older preschool age, verbal-logical memory reaches development. A 6-7 year old child already freely uses words to establish semantic connections when memorizing. With the help of a word, he groups it, relating it to a certain category of objects or phenomena, and establishes logical connections.” All this helps to increase the volume of memorized material.
An important role in increasing the productivity of memorization in older preschool age is played by the fact that by the age of 6–7 years, the child’s ideas about the environment begin to be systematized. These or other objects belong to one or another category of objects or phenomena. The latter facilitates the establishment of logical connections between them, which makes them easier to memorize.
Features of memory development in older preschool age:
Involuntary figurative memory predominates;
Memory, increasingly uniting with speech and thinking, acquires an intellectual character;
Verbal-semantic memory provides indirect cognition and expands the scope of the child’s cognitive activity;
Elements of voluntary memory are formed as the ability to regulate this process, first on the part of the adult, and then on the part of the child himself;
Prerequisites are being formed for transforming the memorization process into a special mental activity, for mastering logical methods of memorization;
As the generalization of behavioral experience and the child’s experience of communication with adults and peers accumulate, memory development is included in personality development.
Considering the influence of memory on personality development, it is noted that memory connects a person’s past with his present and ensures the unity of the personality.
Memory comes into relationship with speech and thinking, acquiring an intellectual character on this basis, that is, reliance on mental operations gives it a meaningful and generalized character.
Preserving the past in memory is closely related to feelings. Strong experiences contribute to the strength and accuracy of memorization and preservation. An exciting event is remembered much better than one that left a person indifferent. However, this dependence is not absolute; there is a certain limit beyond which the strength of the experienced feelings can lead to exactly the opposite result.
Memory is of great importance in the life and activities of people. Thanks to memorization, experience is accumulated, and recognition and reproduction make it possible to use it in subsequent activities. Past experiences are stored in memory. This means that under certain conditions, what happened before is reproduced (or recognized). Without preserving past experience, a person would not recognize surrounding objects, could neither imagine them nor think about them, and therefore could not navigate the external world. Without preserving experience, no learning, no development, either in the mental or in the practical field, is possible.
The development of voluntary memory is of great importance for preparing a child for school education. None educational activities It will not be possible if the child remembers only what directly interests him, regardless of the teacher’s requirements and the tasks put forward by the school curriculum.
Taking into account the above, it is possible to determine the management of the development of memory in an older preschooler.
Conversations based on fairy tales, memorizing poems, and retelling works of art expand the child’s experience. Memorizing literary works will be helped by relying on a picture representation that reflects the main content of the text.
Observations. By directing the child’s attention to different sides of objects, organizing children’s activities to examine them, it is possible to ensure the formation of a complete and accurate memory image.
A child's memory is his interest. Such intellectual feelings as surprise, satisfaction from the discovery made, admiration, doubt, contribute to the emergence and maintenance of interest in the object of knowledge and the activity itself, ensuring memorization.
An important point in the development of voluntary memory is learning memorization techniques. It is six-year-old children who first receive instructions on how to remember.
Memory development is promoted by didactic games. It creates effective play motivation, subordinates memorization to a goal that is close and understandable to the child, allows him to understand the ways of performing the activity, and also gives the adult the opportunity to direct mnemonic activity without inserting a didactic position into the discovery.
Select pictures for viewing and storytelling by children in the group in order to develop the properties and types of attention, observation, and coherent speech. Make up questions about them.
Pick up didactic games for a group of children with the aim of developing the perception of color, shape, size.
Identify children with deficiencies in the development of memory and perception, analyze the reasons and draw up individual plans working with such children using selected pictures and didactic games.
Work with parents can be carried out in the following areas:
2. Prepare consultations on the topics “Let’s retell a fairy tale”, “How to learn a poem”, “Watch with a child”, “If a child has a bad memory”, “How to memorize poems with a child (retell)”.
3. Conduct a survey on the following questions:
Can your child look at objects? Give examples.
What attracts him, what does he watch?
Can your child talk about past events, retell what he has read, and how coherently and logically does he do this? Give examples.
Do you memorize poems with your child, how does he feel about the process and the result of memorization?
Why is it necessary to develop a child’s memory?
Thus, memory is a form of mental reflection of past experience in all its diversity. It underlies training and education, the acquisition of knowledge, personal experience, and the formation of skills.
Observations of the mental development of children and special studies show that a child’s memory develops with age, changing both in volume and in quality.
The development of memory is due to the fact that at different stages of a child’s life his goals and the nature of his interaction with the surrounding reality change.
An important point in the development of the memory of an older preschooler is the emergence of personal memories. They reflect significant events in the child’s life, his success in activities, relationships with adults and peers.
Creating favorable conditions in older preschool age for the development of intentional and meaningful memory processes, the formation of elements of voluntary memory in a child is essential for his further mental development. Nurturing the elements of purposeful memory in an older preschooler, developing in him the ability to consciously set himself the goal of remembering, recalling and using the necessary methods and means for this are a necessary prerequisite for the child’s successful education at school.
Resources
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